Assignments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Assignments - Essay Example The syntactic rule, on the other hand, must always govern a written message so that the reader gets the very meaning that the writer intended to convey. Johnny and Ken, in the course of exchanging words, failed to observe some of these simple rules. The whole conversation, therefore, can be seen as the abuse of language. Johnny opens the talk with an ambiguous statement that gave his roommate a leeway to using any language. Johnny asked, â€Å"Does your friend has to stay here all the time?†(n.pg).In this question, he did not clearly bring out what he meant by that. This was the ambiguous question that led to the conflict. In response to this ambiguity, Ken employed the use of inferential statement. He thought Johnny was already very mad at him and his friend. Therefore, Ken turns furious to counteract the supposed temper of Johnny. Ken replied, â€Å"You said you were chill with it before† (n.pg). This statement also shows that Ken must have used a static evaluation on Johnny. When Johnny had agreed to accommodate the friend earlier, Ken thought that he had made a permanent decision and could not change his mind whats oever. The sudden change of mind took Ken by surprise since he had never expected that from Johnny. There was also lack of euphemism in their tones. Both Ken and Johnny had poor diction. They failed to use pleasant words in place of the blunt ones. For instance, Johnny says â€Å"†¦I don’t like it. I am tired of this! You are the worst† Ken also calls Johnny â€Å"dumb† n.pg. These are emotive statements. If the two had chosen to use polite language (euphemism) on each other, they would have come to an understanding and solve their differences in a smooth way. Johnny, in his first statement, could have avoided ambiguity by politely explaining to Ken why and how his friend had become a burden. Ken could have sat down and listen

The Satire Behind A Brave New World Essay Example for Free

The Satire Behind A Brave New World Essay In the book A Brave New World, is it possible to say that the author Aldous Huxley conveys the idea that the book is a satire rather than a blue print for a perfect society? This is a controversial question, which may only be answered after analyzing many aspects of the book. For example, Huxley not only uses many exaggerations throughout the narrative and various language resources but he also uses irony to create a satirical and entertaining story. The author uses satire throughout the novel, when approaching certain subjects as, materialism, replacement of love by promiscuity and forgetting about the importance of poetry and literature. Satire is used by Huxley when describing how people in the brave new world believe that ending is better than mending. In other words, you should never allow something you possess to be old and out of date. Instead you should replace them constantly to the new and latest product available. He also shows how people are induced to buy more and more with the constant use of propaganda. This may be seen as ironic to the reader as people always try to save the most money as possible in our present world, while in the brave new world people believe that you should always be spending money on as most activity and consumptions as possible. This creates a contrast to the world in which we are living in. In the beginning of the novel we are introduced to the promiscuity and the lack of commitment in the lives of the characters. What is seen in the story is that the reason for sexual relations with another human being is only for pleasure and not for conceiving a child and that it is better for a woman to be as most promiscuous as possible and be with as many men, opposing our knowledge, that a woman should marry and be faithful to one man only. This may be seen as a satire because it contradicts the knowledge that human beings have had so far .In the book characters such as Lenina and Fanny are constantly discussing the subject of sexual relations showing how their ideas in relation to men contradict todays thoughts, making this a very interesting and unique aspect of the book. Another very amusing aspect of the book is that people living in the brave new world believe that reading is a waste of time and it is seen as an insult a person who believes that poetry and literature (Shakespeares plays for example) should be valued. I believe this adds to the irony of the narrative because nowadays people value more and more learning about poetry, literature and art, and the history behind it. So when reading the novel, it is very interesting to see how Huxley portrays these opposing ideas found in the hypothetical perfect world he created. He shows how the people in the Brave New World are not interested in old things, they are however interested in seeing new and superficial movies with no significant meaning behind them. I believe that these aspects of the narrative were approached and developed in such ironic and satirical way; to allow the reader to reflect on what was the authors intention was when doing so. I believe Huxleys intention was to show how the idea of Utopia may be so aspired and worshiped by humans; however it may not be so perfect after all. Even though in the brave new world people are always happy, they dont experience feelings of love and even though they have the power to consume products in such great amounts, they are not allowed to the power of freedom. The author approaches these subjects throughout the novel in such way that it is amusing and entertaining to the reader, making him want to read more and discover more unique aspects attributed to the characters and the narrative created by Huxley.

Pets Are Family Members Too Sociology Essay

Pets Are Family Members Too Sociology Essay Almost every household lives with pets like dogs, cats and others. These pets are treated in a way like they are family members. Although people living with pets are offering great care to them, they are the same individuals inflicting pain and suffering on other animals. Billions of animals have had to content with unavoidable cruelty from the same persons who are supposed to protect them. Animals are equally treated as friends as well as enemies. They are domesticated as pets, however if the keeper finds it fit, they are slaughtered. Do animals really have rights? If so, are these rights similar to those of human beings? These are kind of questions which continue to puzzle human beings. In their endeavor to improve living standards either health wise or psychologically, man must interact with animals in at least one way. Historical evidence depicts that animals divine living things with equal or even better status morally than human beings. Such traditional beliefs were backed by religious and cultural tenets which regarded animals with some dignity. Despite this old perception of animals human beings have continued to view them as creatures to be overruled, owned and used (Regan, 67). Current controversies about animal rights are solidly based on heartless ways through which men across the world interact with animals. Agricultural practices which put animals in jeopardy, too much consumption of meat products and use of animals in uncertain experiments are perfect examples of human activities which contravene free existence of animals. It is ideally expected that animals should be left to stay in their natural habitats without interference from man. Any form of confinement and abuse of animals through entertainments deprive them of their freedom. Nevertheless, despite such happenings of undesirable interaction of animals with human beings, mitigation measures are continually reviewed to help in reducing adverse effects. Exercising responsible and sustainable practices are acts of stewardship in which human realizes the need of living in balance with fellow creatures. Many abuses are offset by such acts of stewardship and advocacy of protection and respect towards animals. Accepting animals as equal members of moral community is a philosophical stand taken by UNESCO. This accord has been vital in explaining the status of animals as property, their welfare and interests (McMillan 147). In addition, the duty of man towards animals wellness is also stipulated in the declaration. A number of questions have been asked about how ethically justified it is to use animals in experimental research activities which are meant to benefit human beings. Cosmetic industries are common violators of animal rights through this means. Helpless animals are suffering daily because human beings want to become more beautiful. Operations which alter genetic structure of animals seem to violate the rights of animals because they comprise changing of animals for ultimate benefit of man in a way which portray animals as mere human property. This is in contrary the desired treatment of animals as beings with their own value and dignity. Even if the animals are used in research for the sake of improving their lives, it is implicit that the subject animal will suffer some pain or restrain while being used as a sample in laboratories. A number of concerns have been raised over morality and ethicality of cloning technology. Although the technology is still in its formative stages, the society at large as well as animal rights advocates are contemplating acceptability of specific areas like Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer. Projections show that this technology may bring tremendous positive changes in ways of life (Silberman, 162). However, activists fear the fact that this technology may be misused in a way that restricts animal rights. As much as it might be argued that Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Technology is only unethical for use in human beings, the same is equally unfit for animal rights. Animal rights activists have a valid school of thought in their vehement argument against cloning. This document attempts to explore underlying research based facts and finding surrounding this sensitive topic of cellular biology. Theoretical framework Scientists have always received fierce criticism from ethics and religious advocates. Animal rights activists in religious perspective are very much concerned with the role of researcher in playing at God. Nevertheless human beings have always transformed the nature to suit their needs. As a matter of fact, interference with animals freedom is an old concept dating up to 5000 years ago. It is evident that improved productivity among animal farms is directly attributed to researches and selective breeding aimed at developing more productive and hardy species. Another optimistic approach towards genetic manipulation technology is the review of mileage attained in medicine. Life expectancy is on the rise in a number of regions in the world due to use on animals as test tools. Therefore, there are no reasons to suddenly stop animals based research suddenly on what is rather progress in improving humanity. Animal rights activists have had notable milestone in the past century with various governments using legislation to suitably formulate and alter laws touching on animals rights. For example, United States federal government has articulate laws governing the use of animals in laboratories. Outstanding provision of this legislation is the rights of animals used in laboratory to be free from suffering and pain. It also stipulates mechanism of alleviating suffering resulting from laboratory operations (Lacroix, 22). To sum it up, animal rights explore ways of introducing moral notion about people to animals welfare. It may not be possible to achieve absolute similarities because there are limiting cases such as impossibility to seek animals consent before treatment procedure is executed. In addition, animal rights involve entrenching basic protection for important features of animals nature into legislation. Cruelty towards animals can be looked at in two distinct perspectives. First is failure to take care of animals within ones custody. By accepting to take custody of any animal either as a pet or other use is taken to mean that the owner is liable for any mistreatment and abuse of animals. Relationship between man and animals has improved over time. Domestication of animals is as old as humanity itself. The nature offers a way of taking care of its in habitats. It is evident in ecological studies that animals can survive comfortably without the influence of man. It can thus be argued that taking animals away from their natural home is only justifiable if the taker is going to offer better services or at least the same as nature. Taking care of animals is a complex issue going beyond food supply and health care (Suen 18). Neglecting them is described by failure to supply correct food, water, housing and veterinary care. Animals who succumb to adverse effects of neglect experience the s ame suffering as those who are harmed by intention. This is so because prolonged suffering is equally bad as purposed harm. Researchers in animals psychology shows that some are emotionally sensitive. Therefore, man activities which affect animals emotionally must be carefully executed to avoid injuring them emotionally (De Haan, 150). Secondly, animals cruelty can as well be viewed as deliberately harming them. Some people who are mentally unstable may decide to relieve their anger in hurting or even killing the animals. Stabbing, shooting or hitting helpless animals because they are seen as unequal is one rude form of inhumane act. Although animals cannot be directly compared to human beings, nor do they enjoy similar privileges, they are entitled to fair treatment. An outstanding example of animals abuse is using them for transport. Donkeys which are normally referred to as beasts of burden suffer greatly in the hands of senseless people across the world. Using them for transport should be carefully monitored so as to avoid over loading them. Keeping animals for the sake of food is a major source of cruelty towards them. Ideally, it is a natural way of balancing ecosystem to slaughter them for food. Overdependence on this source of food contributes immensely to violation of animals rights. The process of slaughtering them has been in application for a long time. Different cultures all over the world have had clearly formulated processes of doing so. It is intended at reducing pain among the animals being killed for food. Killing animals for food should appear as the remaining option having exploited all other sources of food. It is in deed an inevitable procedure calling for humane ways of execution. If there is a way of terminating their lives in the quickest pain-free way possible, it would look better to the animal victims. Conclusion To conclude, maximum animals comfort has not been achieved yet. Efforts should be continually stepped up to not only protect them from mans brutality but also to make them comfortable. Major milestones realized by animal rights activists should be maintained so as to make the realized milestones relevant. On the side of research which is the highest contributor of animal cruelty requires close monitoring and evaluation. Pain inflicted on animals in laboratories must be absolutely necessary, however it should not occur. On the case where laboratory procedures are absolutely necessary, researchers must have in place mitigation measures to curb adverse effects of test drugs among the many disadvantages.

A Prayer for Owen Meany Essay -- English Literature Essays

A Prayer for Owen Meany Not the least of my problems is that I can hardly even imagine what kind of an experience a genuine, self-authenticating religious experience would be. Without somehow destroying me in the process, how could God reveal himself in a way that would leave no room for doubt? If there were no room for doubt, there would be no room for me.- Frederick Buechner In the novel, A Prayer for Owen Meany, by John Irving, Owen Meany’s belief of predestination makes a significant impact on John Wheelwright’s emotional stability as an adult. John Wheelwright is unhealthily bitter and angry about his past experiences because he clings to a past that never lets him choose. This bitterness fuels his repugnance towards the United States and the Reagan administration, because he understands that everything is in fact predestined just as Owen Meany had believed and he feels helpless because there is nothing he can do to change the course of events in life. The death and responsibility of John’s mother’s death fell into the hands of Owen Meany and John can never accept that it was Owen’s fate to kill John’s mother. The Vietnam War was completely out of John’s hands to control being a young adult and all, and the fact that eventually the war indirectly took the life of his best friend, for this he feels helpl essly responsible and angry. Into adulthood, John becomes bitter towards the United States and its catastrophic news because he knows it is all destined to happen, and like everything else in his life, he has no control or power to change anything. The death of John’s mother, Tabitha Wheelwright, was out of John’s control and the job is predestined to be executed by Owen. Her death falls into Owen’s hands because as he believes one night after an atrocious fever, that he had interrupted the Angel of Death. Because of this, the task was then placed on him so that he would be the one to kill Tabitha Wheelwright. In Owen’s opinion, he had INTERUPTED AN ANGEL, he had DISTURBED AN ANGEL AT WORK, he had UPSET THE SCHEME OF THINGS.- The Angel, pg. 102 Owen convinced himself that the reason he was used to kill John’s mom is because he is an â€Å"instrument of God† and that God had taken away Owen’s hands because he is helplessly under the control of destiny. Tabitha Wheelwright died for a reason, and through God, it was predestined to happen by Ow... ... poem †¦ I know: you believe in God, but I believe in ‘Crass Casualty’—in chance, in luck. That’s what I mean. You see? What good does it do to make whatever decision you’re talking about? What good does courage do—when what happens next is up for grabs?- The Finger, pg. 504 John’s confusion in destiny stems from the fact that he believes that anything is possible in life and that it is not one big blueprint of the world. Owen Meany never gave John the chance to decide for himself in what he believed in because Owen disproved John’s belief by confirming to John that life is destiny. John Wheelwright in A Prayer for Owen Meany by John Irving is a depressed and bitter man who leads a solitary life in the confinements of his past because he has been so traumatized by catastrophic events in his life that he cannot bring himself to move forward. He is bitter about the future because he accepts that everything in life is predestined and he feels angry because he has no control of what the future brings. As destiny has it, he has no control over the death of his mother, the indirect death of his best friend caused by the Vietnam War, and the current to future issues facing the world.

Meaning of Education

The Key to Success â€Å"Yep, that’s the last of it† my dad yelled as he slammed the trunk shut. Totes were piled up high and filled with clothes, shoes, and lots of old memories. After getting all settled in my new apartment my family and I said our goodbyes. This next chapter in my life was finally here. I was now a college student entering the real world. We all have our purposes for taking the next step in life and going to college. My purpose for attending college is to take a leap towards creating success and meaning in my life.My family has been a giant influence on attending college. The day my older brother went off to college it was no surprise. It seems that moving on to college was the natural thing to do. For instance, graduating kindergarten and moving to the 1st grade is similar to graduating from high school and moving on to college. It’s just a chapter in life that our parents brought us up expecting to reach and we’ve been taught that it would be the right choice since elementary school. It’s what we grew up knowing we were supposed to do when we got to that point in life.Ultimately, we were taught that this step would lead us to the success to building a more meaningful life. All in all, education is the key to success. Having an education opens many doors to amazing opportunities. Why waste time stuck in a slump when one can go out into the world and be someone, make a difference in this world, and have the pride to say that â€Å"I am successful†. With a college education, the amount of freedom is endless. There are many more careers to choose from and the ability to stand out from others increases your career success.An education helps one develop a more meaningful life, that’s what I want to achieve. I want to make a difference in this world by not only my art but my everyday life. My goals are to one day be very well off financially, enabling me to support my future family and enjoy all th e accomplishments and great opportunities life has to offer. Just on a walk to school, I get a glance of the harsh reality by seeing all the unfortunate civilians struggling to survive each day. For instance, an old man and his dog, hungry as can be, asking for money on the corner of the street.This makes me realize that I am very grateful for what I have and that an education is what I must pursue to accomplish my goals and dreams. With all the love and support of my family and friends I have a great positive outlook on a college education. Having moved on to this next step in my life, I already feel as if I’m that much closer to reaching my goals. I can see how proud my family is as they watch me better my life and future. With all my past experiences, I now have a strong mentality to finish with pride and follow all my dreams. Overall, an education is the way to success and the key to many great opportunities.

More Than Just a Story Essay

Joanna Bartee’s critical essay of Kate Chopin’s short story, The Storm, maintains that the entire story is an allegorical look at feminism and sexual reservations in the Nineteenth Century. She maintains that the storm is a metaphor for the pent up sexual energy that culminates in an extramarital affair while Calixta’s husband and son ride out the actual storm at a small grocer’s store nearby. Bartee points out that Chopin was in touch with her own feelings regarding sexuality and through this story she was able to express her views though she chose not to make them known through publication in her lifetime. Freud said that sometimes a cigar is just a cigar; the opposite is also true. Bartee makes an effective argument that her assessment is correct by backing up her opinions with pertinent blocks of dialogue from the story and by simply pointing out the obvious. To begin Bartee says that the title of Chopin’s short story has a dual meaning, and though the tale unfolds during a raging storm, the storm of the title is representative of repressed human female sexuality. While Alcee comes to the home of Calixta seeking refuge from the storm it is more a rhetorical device to enable the plot to unfold as it does. The physical storm is irrelevant to the actual theme, which is sexuality and human desire. Bartee says that initially the story begins with just the facts that can be gleaned from a read, assuming the reader is capable of taking a bit of latitude. She tells us that the two main characters, Calixta and Alcee, were once lovers and have now met in the present time of the short story, during a powerful storm. She is reading more into this assessment than is actually said in the story when she declares, â€Å"†¦Calixta and Alcee, had a flirtation several years before the story takes place, but each made a more suitable marriage to someone else and they have not seen each other since,† (Bartee). It is known from the story that they had a flirtation but as for each making a more advantageous marriage, that seems to be speculation. Joanne Bartee’s essay addresses the title, saying that ‘The Storm† is metaphor for the pent up passions of a Victorian period. It seems logical that this is the case, for the author flaunts it at every opportunity. She says, â€Å"They did not heed the crashing torrents, and the roar of the elements made her laugh as she lay in his arms,† (Chopin II-20), to describe the passion of the two. Then she says, â€Å"The rain was over; and the sun was turning the glistening green world into a palace of gems. Calixta, on the gallery, watched Alcee ride away,† (Chopin III-1) to describe the parting of the two, saying that the storm of passion had ebbed. Bartee quotes critic Robert Wilson as well, saying that Wilson believes, â€Å"Chopin’s title refers to nature, which is symbolically feminine; the storm can therefore be seen as symbolic of feminine sexuality and passion. † Bartee points out that Claxita is the essence of domesticity as the story opens, totally unaware of an impending storm. This storm will not only be the one of nature but rather the storm of her pent up desires, released when her former paramour arrives unexpectedly. She is sewing, while her husband’s Sunday clothes are airing out on the porch. Bartee believes this is an allusion to polite and proper society in that Sunday clothes can be taken to mean those clothes that her husband would wear to church, accompanied by his wife and child. Early in her critique Bartee says that the entire short story is filled with illustrations of how the storm is the driving force and main theme of Chopin’s story. She also points out that the story was published posthumously, years later, indicating, perhaps, a reluctance to share her views with a Victorian public, believing it was too graphic to be read with her name attached to it. While it is mild by today’s standards, at the time that it was written it must have been considered a bit risque to have a woman author put her name to a story to obviously full of not only secret sexual desires and passions but infidelity and adultery. The idea that the storm passes just as the tryst is completed and Alcee is riding way is certainly an indication that the natural storm and the storm of passions, which have obviously been sated, are one and the same. Bartee points out that Calixta’s husband, Bobinot, wisely waits out the storm at the general store just as he avoids the passions of wife as well. He is aware of what the natural storm can do and does not intend to let it batter him, likewise, Bartee says, he is aware of the passions of which his wife is capable and he does not mean to allow himself to be battered that the emotional storm brewing in his wife’s psyche. Bartee believes that Bobinot is aware of the situation, though this seems to be conjecture on her part. If this is the case then Bobinot is hiding from the passions of a wife by avoidance, and there is not enough information given to make that claim. Bartee points out the obvious with clarity and most of what she says seems logical, but at this point she appears to be taking a leap of imagination that is not justified by the text of Kate Chopin. Calixta seems content to do her familial chores, tending to her home and seeing to her husband’s clothes. Bartee says at this point that many of the chores that she has to do are done in obvious frustration and are also symbols of the sexual repression of this Nineteenth Century homemaker. This may be the correct assessment as Chopin says that Calixta, â€Å" †¦ unfastened her white sacque at the throat. It began to grow dark, and suddenly realizing the situation she got up hurriedly and went about closing windows and door,† (Chopin II-1). This, Bartee implies, is the foreshadowing that a bad storm is about to blow, and it may overwhelm her. She is leery of how bad it is going to get and takes some nominal precautions to protect her home from the approaching storm. Bartee does not address the symbolism inherent in the actions of Calixta during the initial meeting of the two former intimates. Alcee asks for permission to take shelter on Calixta’s porch, but they both quickly realize that such shelter is totally ineffective against the fury of the storm, which, obviously at this point is not only refers to the weather but more pointedly, to the raging emotions beginning to build in the man and woman. When Calixta invites Alcee into the home of her family it is virtually a paradigm shift in her attitude toward both the old flame and to her duties as wife and mother. â€Å"He expressed an intention to remain outside, but it was soon apparent that he might as well have been out in the open,† (Chopin II-5). The two then find it appropriate to ‘put something under the door’, to further isolate them from the outside world. The description of her husband’s clothing, intimate possessions, which cover and protect a man, are exposed outside the home. There is a real possibility that they can be lost, damaged or destroyed, just as her marriage can be lost, damaged or destroyed by her emotional storm of passion. This symbolism of them hanging outside, exposed to the elements, Bartee says, is symbolic of the danger that Calixta feels concerning the approach of the storm. He husband’s intimate possessions are in danger of being destroyed or lost. Bartee writes, â€Å"They are in danger of blowing away from the strong winds that are approaching with the storm,† (Bartee). Alcee grabs Bobinot’s pants, which, Bartee says Wilson describes as a subversion of the constraints which Calixta, as a married woman, should be feeling. Bartee likewise correctly assesses the description Chopin gives the reader of symbolically putting away a cotton sheet. This sheet, that covers a marriage bed, is in sight when Alcee arrives, but as the two characters talk, Calixta pointedly puts the sheet out of sight, and, if could be inferred, out of mind. Bartee does not mention that the author describes the view she has of the marriage bed itself and that Calixta is aware that the son’s sleeping couch are in view as well. This could also be taken as symbolic of the intimate glimpse Calixta is permitting a virtual stranger, an outsider to her family, to have of her home and private life. Chopin describes the scene thus, â€Å" The door stood open, and the room with its white, monumental bed, its closed shutters, looked dim and mysterious,† (Chopin II-9). Bartee’s opinion is that in symbolically putting away the cotton sheet, an object of domesticity, getting it out of their sight, Calixta is now symbolically clearing her mind, removing any obstacles that might stand in the way of the two as they move inexorably toward the inevitable passionate union toward which the story has been leading. Bartee quotes lines from the story saying that not only do the two lovers lack any remorse, they feel renewed and invigorated by their act. Bartee says, â€Å"Chopin writes, â€Å"So the storm passed and everyone was happy. † Bartee does not mention what seems to be more than a casual comment immediately prior to that line. Chopin’s penultimate line reads, â€Å" Devoted as she was to her husband, their intimate conjugal life was something which she was more than willing to forego for a while. † This refers to the wife of Alcee, who, it seems, although unaware of the details of the tryst and the storm, has profited from it. The fact that everyone is happy must therefore include Alcee’s wife, and she is temporarily relieved of the more mundane of her ‘wifely duties’. Still, Bartee makes an effective argument that her view is correct by backing up her opinions with pertinent blocks of dialogue from the story and by simply pointing out the obvious. Works Cited Bartee, J. The Storm: More Than Just a Story Retrieved 5-23-07 from http://facultystaff. vwc. edu/~cbellamy/Southern%20Literature/SL%20Chopin. htm Chopin, K. The Storm 1898

Pollock - An Overview of the Biopic essays

Pollock - An Overview of the Biopic essays For my film, I chose to cover the biopic, "Pollock", starring Ed Harris. The film covers the complex life of one of America's most abstract painters, Jackson Pollock. The film's lead, Ed Harris, was a fantastic choice for the role. A little-known fact, "Ed Harris's father bought his son a book about Jackson Pollock simply because he felt Ed bore a strong resemblance to the painter. Ever since then, Ed Harris became fascinated with Pollock's life." (IMDB, 2000) This allowed him to portray the role in a very personal, well-informed way. Because of this, the film truly allowed me to gaze into the artist's life and gain a deeper appreciation for the external elements that affected the art created by such a renowned artist. The film literally walks us through what Jackson Pollock experienced during his career and short life. It starts at the climax of his career with the artist signing Life magazines that he was featured on. It then quickly flashes back to the beginning, the struggles he faced, and the difficulty he had getting his art showcased. You can see the frustration portrayed, and you can sense that he's almost ready to give up. He's living with his brother Sande in a small apartment, when Lee Krasner decides to intervene. She brings Jackson home with her and becomes his manager. Throughout everything, alcohol is constantly getting in the way and causing heartache for everyone in his life. He gets a fairly big deal from Peggy Guggenheim, who he almost sleeps with and that leads to some moderate success. He marries Lee and focuses on his career, the alcohol still getting in the way of any sort of peace. Life magazine does a feature story on him and things get better. He backs off of alcohol te mporarily and that creates a better mood and relative peace. The peace didn't last for long and after a photographer attempting to make a movie on Jackson triggers his drinking, things spiral downwards. He lets it get out of hand and blo...

Free Essays on Sound Waves

Sound Waves Sound is everywhere. It plays an important role in almost everything that we do in our lives and we take it for granted. Whether it’s the sound that the wind makes when it rustles the tree branches or the music coming out of our speakers, all sound is composed of little sound waves that are made by slight vibrations. These slight vibrations in any object move the air particles around the object in an outward motion and cause a sound when these waves hit your eardrums. Sound waves come in many different types, shapes, and sizes but they all share the same principles and characteristics. Sound waves are a part of every noise and they are imperative to sound perception. A wave of sound can be considered as a disturbance that travels through some material called a medium, transporting energy from one location to another. (Henderson) Such waves that seem to be hooked onto one another in a straight line are characterized as mechanical waves. When the first particle is disturbed it then moves the second particle on the line because they are hooked together and touching. Once the second particle starts moving, the third will be disturbed by the second particle’s movement and the fourth particle will be disturbed by the third particle’s movement and so on. The vibration will be passed on consecutively and the energy that was first introduced in the first particle will move on and on from particle to particle in that medium. These mechanical waves can best be described as producing longitudinal waves. In a longitudinal wave, the medium would most commonly be the surrounding air particles that vibrate toward a certain direction. The individual particles of the medium will always move in a direction that is parallel to the direction that the energy is being applied. (Kriz) For instance, if someone is talking to another person, the sound waves produced by the vocal chords will move in a direction in which the person is faced. ... Free Essays on Sound Waves Free Essays on Sound Waves Sound Waves Sound is everywhere. It plays an important role in almost everything that we do in our lives and we take it for granted. Whether it’s the sound that the wind makes when it rustles the tree branches or the music coming out of our speakers, all sound is composed of little sound waves that are made by slight vibrations. These slight vibrations in any object move the air particles around the object in an outward motion and cause a sound when these waves hit your eardrums. Sound waves come in many different types, shapes, and sizes but they all share the same principles and characteristics. Sound waves are a part of every noise and they are imperative to sound perception. A wave of sound can be considered as a disturbance that travels through some material called a medium, transporting energy from one location to another. (Henderson) Such waves that seem to be hooked onto one another in a straight line are characterized as mechanical waves. When the first particle is disturbed it then moves the second particle on the line because they are hooked together and touching. Once the second particle starts moving, the third will be disturbed by the second particle’s movement and the fourth particle will be disturbed by the third particle’s movement and so on. The vibration will be passed on consecutively and the energy that was first introduced in the first particle will move on and on from particle to particle in that medium. These mechanical waves can best be described as producing longitudinal waves. In a longitudinal wave, the medium would most commonly be the surrounding air particles that vibrate toward a certain direction. The individual particles of the medium will always move in a direction that is parallel to the direction that the energy is being applied. (Kriz) For instance, if someone is talking to another person, the sound waves produced by the vocal chords will move in a direction in which the person is faced. ...

Can Theories of Management Apply to Media manager, Organisations and, Essay

Can Theories of Management Apply to Media manager, Organisations and, are Such Theoretical Applications Redundant Discuss in Relation to the Film and TV Industries - Essay Example The main objective o media industries are successful customer acquisition and retention start with a focus on creating a positive return on investment to grow businesses through measurable marketing solutions that leverage the convergence of media and the newest technologies. Then why is it that anytime any news about the advertising or video game industry, both of which are massive profitable and pretty much icons of society and culture, they always claim to be struggling Are industries based upon rapid fire information inherently less stable than ones based on selling material goods How to turn creative ideas into a successful business How to adapt conventional business and management skills to the unpredictable market for culture Management theories are applicable in to cut across different industries that includes Film production and distribution Broadcasting, music industry, Publishing, Crafts and design, Computer software, games, animation consultancy and a survival kit for the small creative firms. The media manager in film and media enterprises focuses on the special relationship between creative imagination and strategic management. Efficient management skills cater for profit creative sector at the national and international level, including funding officers, project managers and policy makers. (Sharan & Surar, 15) In Media and TV industries, media manager's collaboration, togetherness, change in thinking cannot happen through annual conferences and conference room presentations. It needs to be a discipline and has to start from the top. There should be a set of management theories, which all media managers adhere to for better performance. The top manager will have to consciously become selfless, understand management theories practiced management skills can genuinely spread this culture in the workplace for this process to be successful. This will also eliminate mutiny in the ranks and help ideas to flourish! Management theories are applicable to all business organisations. Introduction to organisations and management includes: (1) PLANNING: Decision-making, the essence of a manager's job, foundations of planning, strategic management, planning tools and techniques .Media managers must develop own approaches to organisation, strategic planning and marketing develop critical faculties and research skills. Indeed there is a need to look into all aspects of branding and marketing from strategy and tactic development to budget allocations and metric tracking and integrating a variety of traditional and digital tactics. (2) ORGANISING: Organisational structure and design also includes Human resource management, managing change and innovation techniques. Media managers must acquire a critical overview of the commercial, legal and cultural frameworks within which creative and media enterprises operate. (3) LEADING: Leading the industry and the people, understanding groups and teams motivating employees, Leadership, managerial communication and interpersonal skills. Media managers must explore the business opportunities and make decisions in the environment of a rapidly changing media industry. The challenge for media corporations today is to keep pace with new technology and to continuously learn and create knowledge in this fast changing environment. (4)

Case study Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Case study - Assignment Example However, profit and loss account does not provide information about future. (1.b) Profit and Loss Account Review: When looking at the profit and loss account of the Modern Furniture of both years, there are some items that are worth considering for decision making. The gross profit has declined by 10.75% from 2011. The major reason is the increase in the inventory cost. The other important thing to notice is that, there is a sharp decline of 5.8% in the net profit from last year which clearly indicates that there are no effective controls over the cost. Specially, salaries, maintenance and cleaning costs have increased to a significant amount. In addition to the facts mentioned above the Modern Furniture has also paid a bank interest of ?5200 due to the bank overdraft facility availed by the business in 2012; whereas, there was no such facility in the previous year. Marketing cost has also increased to ?51,500 from ?45,000 which is normal in a growing business like Modern Furniture. (2.a) Purpose of Balance Sheet: As the profit and loss account shows the results of revenue and expenses for the whole year, the balance sheet reflects the financial position of the entity on a particular point of time including the details of total assets, liabilities and owner’s equity. ... It is a picture that shows the strength and weaknesses of the business. (2.b) Balance Sheet Review: There are many observations in the balance sheet. The liquidity position has deteriorated since last year. There is no cash balance available at the end of year 2012. Investment in the non-liquid assets such as inventory and prepayments has increased together with the investment in receivables since last year. In addition to this Modern Furniture has also availed the bank overdraft facility so, there are major problems regarding liquidity. The business is holding more inventory than the previous year due to the growth in the business. Higher inventory levels will counter the threat of stock out at the price of higher inventory cost. The business has also made heavy investment of ?70,550 in fixed assets keeping in view the future expected demand. The overall position of the business is reasonable except the liquidity issue which requires prompt action from the owner. To overcome the cur rent situation the business should make investment in the liquid assets such as cash and securities otherwise it will be difficult to pay the liabilities in due time. (3 a) Purpose of Cash Flow Statement: Cash flow is also one of the most important parts of the financial statements which reflect all the receipts and payments made by the company during the financial year. The purpose of preparing the cash flow statement is to ascertain whether there are sufficient cash flows available to finance the operations. Cash act as a blood to run any organization. If the business is unable to produce sufficient cash, there will be going concern threat due to severe liquidity problems. The most important of all three activities in the cash flow statement is the

Terminal Design Concept Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Terminal Design Concept - Essay Example d namely; pier satellite design, pier finger design, remote satellite design, transporter design, semicircular (curvilinear) design and linear design. Having analyzed the concepts mentioned above, the most appropriate and efficient design was a hybrid of linear and pier satellite design configurations. By description, the linear design concept involves a configuration with one building hosting both the ticketing and waiting area especially for small aircraft airports. The pier satellite terminal includes the same design as linear only that it involves more concourses connected to this main building thus creating several satellite structures. Considerations of best practices in modern airports influenced the hybrid selection decision. The need for short walking distances, for example, for passengers was assured by incorporating linear design to counter the excessive walking distances created by the rotunda-like pier satellite concept. A linear design concept guarantees a precise orientation where aircrafts park nose-in with respect to the terminal building. However, the orientation occasioned by the rotunda-like layout in the pier satellite design configuration is not a straight forward one. Simple construction of the main linear terminal building and the piers influenced the selection of the hybrid design configuration. The layout is simple and enables passengers to park their vehicles even right in front of the terminals before they enter through for boarding the aircraft. Adequate curb length is made possible by the pier satellite system since it is dependent on dwell time called so to mean the time has taken to remove passengers and their baggage. Thanks to the piers for decentralizing the clearing area and the no hub volume type of airport under consideration. In this case, there was enough area for terminal curb for through vehicles, baggage, and the passengers’ pickup. Small baggage system costs using decentralized system helps achieve pier satellite

EHealth Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

EHealth - Coursework Example Several ehealth projects have been initiated to aid patients suffering from the disease. As such, these projects have had a significant impact on people suffering from dementia and their relatives or caregivers (Ball & Lillis, 2001). In 2010, it was estimated that 35.6 million people were suffering from dementia globally. In fact, this number represents approximately 0.5% of the world’s population. Studies estimate the number to rise up to 115.4 million people by 2050. Furthermore, people have a 20% chance of suffering from dementia during their lifetime. In regard to gender, women are at a higher risk of suffering from the disease during their lifetime. Dementia is associated with old age. The older a person becomes, the higher the chances of suffering from the disease. 40 % of people aged above 90 years are suffering from the disease (Ferri et al, 2006). Individual suffering from the disease tend to forget thing easily when compared to normal old individuals or people. Unlike normal people who are able to perform their daily activities easily, people suffering from dementia experience a lot of difficulties while carrying out their daily chores and activities. Dementia is a costly disease to maintain. Th e total estimated global cost of the disease amounted to 604 billion dollars. This is a significant sum of resources/ funds. Due to the continued increase in dementia cases, the cost is expected to massively increase by 85%. In today’s world, information and communication technology has become an integral part in nearly all sectors of society. As such, mobile applications, the internet and other technologies have infiltrated all sectors including health care (Krishna, Boren & Balas, 2009). Basically, e health is defined as the utilization of ICT to improve and deliver health care services in the society (Maheu, Whitten & Allen, 2002).

Geographic Information System on a civil engineering Research Paper

Geographic Information System on a civil engineering - Research Paper Example Key to this research is the various information software used in the analysis and presentation of civil engineering works. Introduction The GIS (geographic information system) is a modern scientific system and software capable of acquiring or capturing, recording, integrating and present in more clearly and understandable format for all geographic data. The system will analyze information such as landscape, terrain and hydrology and eventually display the required output whether in 3-D or maps to be used in engineering purposes. Since GIS is jurisdictional, they can be specifically designed to analyze and present civil engineering data and therefore aid in civil engineering design. Such application especially witnessed in GIS is restrictive and would therefore be a civil engineers very important tool. Any application information system that has the ability to capture, integrate, analyze and display in such formats that can be understood is called GIS (Chang 2008). In civil engineerin g GIS can be taken to use such software as CAD and PROKON which analyze and present civil engineering data. PROKON can be adequately used to carry out structural analysis and present the results in more practical engineering terms. The info is then used for the practical design to ensure completion of the project. Others include Nisa Design Studio, Fastrack, Structural BIM, Vision Civil and S-Frame (Fu & Sun. 2010). Literature review Application of GIS can be traced back to the 1832 use of spatial analysis in what has recently become known as the field of epidemiology. This was done by the Geographer Charles Picquet who attempted to represent the whole city of Paris, showing all its districts, using colour variations or gradient. Further developments could include the cholera representation in London by John Snow where points were used to indicate specific cases in specific areas in regard to geographic location and proximity. The Snow representation added value to the previously ex isting ideas of topography as the element of analysis of clusters was incorporated in addition to the aspect of representation or depiction that was earlier known. This has been the basis of GIS applications where cartographic methods are used to analyze geographically dependent elements (Chang 2008). With advancement in technology and by the 20th century, there was the development of photozincography where maps could now be split into layers to represent vegetation, water and similar phenomena. Though tedious, the aspect of separate layers made it more interesting and accurate as confusion was easily avoided by the draughtsman working on the maps. Colour printing improved this further where printing was done and this enhanced quality output of the maps as well as proper storage. This was the basis of the contemporary GIS concept (Chang 2008). The Canadian GIS (CGIS) brought with it more advantages as opposed to the previous technique of computer mapping. Through CGIS, it was possib le to do overlays, measurement and scanning, a feature not previously available through computer mapping. Since the system supported the national coordinate system which covered the whole continent and also stored locational information as supporting files, the system was more effective in analyzing geographic data for it was mainly designed. The result of the Dr. Tomlinson’s contribution is the basis of the modern GIS and is thus conveniently referred to as

Jewish Civilization Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Jewish Civilization - Assignment Example Significant of Tanakh to Jewish history Jewish are also called â€Å"the people of the book†. After the demolition of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Jewish sacrifices were impossible and the life style of Jews turned to Tanakh study accompanied with synagogue prayers. The study Tanakh including other Jewish writings is important to the life of religious. Tanakh, Talmud, and other writing are major sources to learn about Jewish history and God’s commandments, whereby this two continue to portray a main part in Jewish. To remember various things that God did to the Jewish and His commandments, selections of important Tanakh and prophets takes place in the synagogues. To help in good interpretation of the God’s commandments, effective rabbinical writings develop daily. Studying Tanakh is significant in the Jewish history since it is an important portion of the Jewish children’s education, and thus Jewish religion centers on intensive writing study. 3. Oral Torah Apart from the written Torah, there was also oral Torah, which God gave to Moses at Mount Sinai during the forty years Israelites took in the desert. Oral Torah involves two parts, the Gemara and the Mishnah both of which gives a wide range of principles included in the written torah. The Oral Torah is a tradition explaining the meaning of the written Torah, ways of interpreting them, and ways of applying the Laws. Jewish believe that Gog gave Moses and taught him the Oral Torah, who taught the other Jewish. This Jewish tradition remained functional until 2nd century C.E. During this century, Jewish piled up the Oral Torah and wrote it down in a form of a document known as Mishnah. Examples of oral Torah include the Halachah (Laws given to Moses at Sinai) and the Shlosh Esreh Middot Sheha Torah Nidreshet Bahem (The thirteen principles of Torah Exegesis). Significance of Oral Torah to Jewish History The Jewish theology believes that Oral Torah brings value as commentary, history, an d understanding of how Jewish interpreted certain aspects. For instance, â€Å"an eye for an eye† statement means financial compensation. However, many Messiah teaching are in the Oral Torah and extra information explaining the meanings of these Messiah teaching are in the Talmud. Additionally, Oral Torah teaches us the issue and thinking processes of Christians and therefore Oral Torah deserve good understanding and respect. Oral Torah is significant because it contains broad interpretation of the written Torah in the light of transforming circumstances to enable it adapt new situations. However, it shows Jewish people daily basis requirements. Although different Jewish people apply the Oral Torah laws in dissimilar ways, they normally acknowledge significance of Oral Torah by ensuring that all oral principles remain applicable. Nevertheless, Oral Torah plays a significant role in the current Judaism practices. 8. Siddur A Siddur is a Jewish prayer book, which contains a set of daily prayers. The earliest portions of this Jewish prayer book are the Hear O Israel (Shema Yisrael), and the Numbers (Priestly Blessing), which were contained in the Torah. Soncino in Italy published the Siddur in the year 1486, although it its distribution was in the year 1865. As early as 1538, Siddur started to come into view in the vernacular. Significance of Siddur to the Jewish History Siddur prayer book is significant to the Jewish

EHealth Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

EHealth - Coursework Example Several ehealth projects have been initiated to aid patients suffering from the disease. As such, these projects have had a significant impact on people suffering from dementia and their relatives or caregivers (Ball & Lillis, 2001). In 2010, it was estimated that 35.6 million people were suffering from dementia globally. In fact, this number represents approximately 0.5% of the world’s population. Studies estimate the number to rise up to 115.4 million people by 2050. Furthermore, people have a 20% chance of suffering from dementia during their lifetime. In regard to gender, women are at a higher risk of suffering from the disease during their lifetime. Dementia is associated with old age. The older a person becomes, the higher the chances of suffering from the disease. 40 % of people aged above 90 years are suffering from the disease (Ferri et al, 2006). Individual suffering from the disease tend to forget thing easily when compared to normal old individuals or people. Unlike normal people who are able to perform their daily activities easily, people suffering from dementia experience a lot of difficulties while carrying out their daily chores and activities. Dementia is a costly disease to maintain. Th e total estimated global cost of the disease amounted to 604 billion dollars. This is a significant sum of resources/ funds. Due to the continued increase in dementia cases, the cost is expected to massively increase by 85%. In today’s world, information and communication technology has become an integral part in nearly all sectors of society. As such, mobile applications, the internet and other technologies have infiltrated all sectors including health care (Krishna, Boren & Balas, 2009). Basically, e health is defined as the utilization of ICT to improve and deliver health care services in the society (Maheu, Whitten & Allen, 2002).

Jewish Civilization Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Jewish Civilization - Assignment Example Significant of Tanakh to Jewish history Jewish are also called â€Å"the people of the book†. After the demolition of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Jewish sacrifices were impossible and the life style of Jews turned to Tanakh study accompanied with synagogue prayers. The study Tanakh including other Jewish writings is important to the life of religious. Tanakh, Talmud, and other writing are major sources to learn about Jewish history and God’s commandments, whereby this two continue to portray a main part in Jewish. To remember various things that God did to the Jewish and His commandments, selections of important Tanakh and prophets takes place in the synagogues. To help in good interpretation of the God’s commandments, effective rabbinical writings develop daily. Studying Tanakh is significant in the Jewish history since it is an important portion of the Jewish children’s education, and thus Jewish religion centers on intensive writing study. 3. Oral Torah Apart from the written Torah, there was also oral Torah, which God gave to Moses at Mount Sinai during the forty years Israelites took in the desert. Oral Torah involves two parts, the Gemara and the Mishnah both of which gives a wide range of principles included in the written torah. The Oral Torah is a tradition explaining the meaning of the written Torah, ways of interpreting them, and ways of applying the Laws. Jewish believe that Gog gave Moses and taught him the Oral Torah, who taught the other Jewish. This Jewish tradition remained functional until 2nd century C.E. During this century, Jewish piled up the Oral Torah and wrote it down in a form of a document known as Mishnah. Examples of oral Torah include the Halachah (Laws given to Moses at Sinai) and the Shlosh Esreh Middot Sheha Torah Nidreshet Bahem (The thirteen principles of Torah Exegesis). Significance of Oral Torah to Jewish History The Jewish theology believes that Oral Torah brings value as commentary, history, an d understanding of how Jewish interpreted certain aspects. For instance, â€Å"an eye for an eye† statement means financial compensation. However, many Messiah teaching are in the Oral Torah and extra information explaining the meanings of these Messiah teaching are in the Talmud. Additionally, Oral Torah teaches us the issue and thinking processes of Christians and therefore Oral Torah deserve good understanding and respect. Oral Torah is significant because it contains broad interpretation of the written Torah in the light of transforming circumstances to enable it adapt new situations. However, it shows Jewish people daily basis requirements. Although different Jewish people apply the Oral Torah laws in dissimilar ways, they normally acknowledge significance of Oral Torah by ensuring that all oral principles remain applicable. Nevertheless, Oral Torah plays a significant role in the current Judaism practices. 8. Siddur A Siddur is a Jewish prayer book, which contains a set of daily prayers. The earliest portions of this Jewish prayer book are the Hear O Israel (Shema Yisrael), and the Numbers (Priestly Blessing), which were contained in the Torah. Soncino in Italy published the Siddur in the year 1486, although it its distribution was in the year 1865. As early as 1538, Siddur started to come into view in the vernacular. Significance of Siddur to the Jewish History Siddur prayer book is significant to the Jewish

Trial the development of Joe Keller Essay Example for Free

Trial the development of Joe Keller Essay The audiences sympathy for Joe Keller oscillates throughout the play. Ranging from deep compassion to undisputed rage, the audience has plenty of time to view Joe Kellers development as the central character of the novel. His emotional growth from beginning to end facilitates the empathy that the audience shows; hence, Miller uses Keller as a character in order to build up the compassionate side of the audience in order to assemble a fabricated and well thought out character. Firstly, Keller tries to change Annes mind with respect to Stephen, and goes about it in a calm and relaxed manner. He mentions, I want him [Stephen] to know, Annie while hes sitting there I want him to know that when he gets out hes got a place waitin for him. His use of ellipsis is ambivalent, on one hand, it could signify the deep emotion that Keller feels towards Stephen, but on the other hand, another concealed meaning could be that Joe is thinking about what he is saying, and therefore does not want to say anything wrong, and consequently has something to hide, giving him a more ominous figure. However, the repetition of he and him shows how sympathetic he feels towards the incarcerated man, hence giving the audience the impression that Joe Keller has emotions and can therefore be sympathised with. Subsequently, Miller also casually slips in phrases that Keller says in casual conversation that show how passionate and considerate Keller is towards his family. When speaking to Anne about Stephen, he says, with a commanding outburst in high nervousness that A father is a father! This shows how important family is to Keller, however, the commanding outburst and nervousness also suggests that Keller has a hidden motive, and Chris presence may have influenced his body language, which suggests that Keller has done something wrong to be able to lose his son. This plays on the audiences sympathy positively, because the audience can empathise with Kellers love for his family and recognize his individual situation. Thirdly, Keller suggests that Stephen is a helpless coward in a conversation with his son, George, and offensively gives numerous examples in his defence. Keller mentions that Stephen damn near blew us all up with that heater he left burning for two days without water. Emotive words such as damn, blew and burning all have negative implications, giving the impression that Keller was the brains behind the business. The fact that Keller was also driving in, but restrained suggests that he wants to inflict his own ideas and beliefs onto George, but knows that he must restrain himself, giving the same implication that Keller has something to hide. However, this could also be considered as a defensive, rather than an offensive conversation, as George uses a rather accusational tone towards Keller and is studying him thoroughly. Finally, Chris holds great admiration for Keller, but is destroyed once he learns of his fathers terrible secret. When the realisation finally hits, Chris stutters in a broken whisper, Then you did it? The ellipsis shows the amount of thought that went into the phrase, suggesting that he doesnt want his father to be guilty but at the same time, wants to find out the truth. Keller begins to become afraid of him, [with] his deadly insistence suggesting that his son is his biggest asset but also his biggest downfall. This also shows, once again, that nothing is bigger than family to Keller. This conflict of ideologies, Chris with his morals and ethics, and Keller with his persistent cherishing of his family no matter what the cost, creates a disequilibrium within the play. At this point, the audience begins to sympathise with Chris rather than Keller, which diminishes Millers slow build up of Kellers respectability, providing more of a tragic ending to Keller. However, this tragic ending can also be interpreted as a chance to further sympathise with Joe, as his world comes crashing down around him. Ultimately, Keller commits suicide at the end of the novel, resulting in the tragic downfall of Keller. He says, I think to him they were all my sons. This line shows the realisation of his wrongdoings. His morals and ethics are finally shown, as he stares blankly into the piece of paper in his hand. His suicide could represent Keller as taking his responsibilities rather than hiding from them, however, it could also suggest that Keller was a coward and he was merely running away from the problems that he was to face if he did not accept his offences. Evidently, his defensive stance when talking to George, his conflict of beliefs with his son, and his ultimate sacrifice all have a large part to play in Millers manipulation of the audiences sympathy. Keller was a coward and used scapegoats or escapism to run away from his problems, giving the ultimate impression to the audience that Keller as a human is not to be sympathised with. However, his growth as a character and his self-understanding both provide a suitable route to empathise with him, truly showing that the audience can choose whichever interpretation they prefer.

Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography

Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography Introduction During the 25 years since the publication of Writing Culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography, a great deal of discussion has accompanied it. In this essay I place this book in the context of the literary turn in anthropology, and concern with the postcolonial encounter as well. Throughout the analysis of the main themes in the book, attention is paid to the construction of ethnographic authority and two relationships of ethnographer/reader and ethnographer/informant centered in Writing Culture. The essay also provides a perspective of the influential power of the book by presenting some ethnographies conducted by Chinese anthropologists. Finally, I will argue the risks of the textualism trend and different patterns in Writing Culture approach. Background of the Book: In and Beyond Anthropology More than ten years after the publication of Writing Culture, in a review article, George Marcus (1998:5) quoted Schneiders words referring to the book: I dont think Jim Clifford is famous for his monograph on Leenhardt. I dont think that George Marcus has achieved some notoriety because he worked on Tonga. Indeed, I dont know anybody whos read the ethnography he wrote. In fact, Ive often talked to people and asked them, Hay, have you read George Marcuss ethnography? No!-but I read that other damn book. It is a very typical and interesting comment. As an anthropologist, George Marcus is best remembered for editing the collection of essays rather than his own ethnographic work; and similarly, James Clifford, a historian, is frequently regarded as an anthropologist by force of being the editor of the same book. The comment also reveals that the book is controversial, and it has witnessed harshly criticism after its appearance. However, there is no denying that Writing Culture is one of the most important books throughout the history of anthropology-the milestone of the post-modern era and the cornerstone of the experimental ethnography (Gao 2007, Scholte 1987). 1. The literary turn There is nothing outside the text. (Derrida) The book, with eleven essays in it (including the introduction and afterword), is based on a series of seminars at the School of American Research in Santa Fe, New Mexico, the United States of America in April 1984(Clifford and Marcus 1985). By taking the making of ethnographic text (Clifford and Marcus 1986:vii) as the focal point of their seminars, the participants not only viewed WRITING as a elementary method, but also the central issue of social cultural anthropology. Ethnographic writing is then critically examined in aspects of social context, the use of rhetoric devises, the limitations of disciplinary traditions, the definition of its genre, the political engagement, and historical transformations.[1] Why is writing becoming a principle thing in anthropology? In order to answer this question, inevitably, we take into consideration the literary turn, or say textualism trend in anthropology in the 1980s. The literary turn, just as its name implies, by taking text, writing and literary devices as key concepts and employing textual and literary analyses, is a radical shift which provides strikingly different epistemological and methodological approaches in the discipline of anthropology (Scholte 1987). Although it is difficult to figure out whether Writing Culture is more a cause or a result of the literary turn, the book is definitely a key ingredient of it. I would further suggest that Levi-Strauss, Geertz and Writing Culture should be considered as a sequence in the context of the literary turn. What the Writing Culture authors claim, such as the diversity of representations, possibilities of interpretations, at a glance, are totally different from Levi-Strausss pure unity, reduced models and deep culture grammar. At the same time, Levi-Strausss strong sense of symbol and meaning within a symbolic language system and his linguistic analogy approach (Barrett 1996) are valuable legacies to Geertz and Writing Culture. Furthermore, his research on mythology threw fresh light on the interdisciplinary studies across anthropology and literature. Then, Geertz, who is profoundly influenced by Levi-Strauss and Weber, has a more important and complex influence on Writing Culture. Firstly, his concern of anthropological interpretations and thick descriptions, fieldwork and post fieldwork, (Geertz 19751983) provided the basis for Writing Culture explorations. Secondly, Geertzs local knowledge, natives point of view (Geertz 19751983) and assertion of an amiable and intelligible style insp ired Writing Culture authors to portray fieldwork as a dialogical approach, and consequently take the interactions of ethnographers/the indigenous people (Barrett 1996) and ethnographers/readers in to account. Thirdly, Geertzs ethnographies became important materials of Writing Culture 2. Postcolonial encounter and Cultural Representation I used to rule the world Seas would rise when I gave the word Now in the morning I sweep alone Sweep the streets I used to own One minute I held the key Next the walls were closed on me And I discovered that my castles stand Upon pillars of salt and pillars of sand Lyrics of Viva la Vida (Coldplay 2009) The birth of this book is not narrowly concerned with the inheritance and development of theory and methodology within the discipline, but rather deeply rooted in the historical background and the reconstruction among the entire academic community. As an academic discipline, anthropology is developed in the context of imperialism and colonialism. The long-time contact between European conquerors and the colonists shaped forms of power and knowledge, and anthropologists at that time entered into non-European aboriginal communities as observers and describers (Asad 2002). Anthropology narrated power relations; at the same time it was also potentially counter-hegemonic (Clifford 1986:9). In 1980s, which was the postcolonial and postwar era without the umbrella of the colonial power, anthropology started to face a more complex nexus of power relations. The postcolonial situation affected the main interests of anthropology and challenged the authority of ethnography. Moreover, anthropology from then on, was not only carried out by Europeans and Americans, but also by those from the so-called Third World who were studying their own cultures; and neither Western culture nor the non-Western cultures remained the same in the ever-changi ng world (Clifford 1986, Layton 1997). In Writing Culture, the analyses of ethnographic discourses- asking who speaks? who writes? when and where? with or to whom? under what institutional and historical constrains?(Clifford 1986)-is a repercussion of the postcolonial encounter. Another important feature of the 1980s is the increasing flow of so-called postmodernism in academia-grand narrative was abandoned and details of everyday life took their place. Accordingly, singular culture was replaced by the plural one, and cultures were understood as representations and knowledge; and man with a small m took place of Man with variability. More importantly, the process of rethinking cultural representation again called into question the authenticity of representation itself and Writing Culture elegantly captured the main themes in this discussion. Three Main Themes of the Book In general, Writing Culture is an introspection, which attempts to examine anthropology traditions (especially the traditional ethnography) as well as anthropologists themselves. I will explore three main themes in the reflections. 1. Partial truth Knowledge is power,and that one must never reveal all of what one knows. Saramaka folktale, in Price (1983:14) cited in Clifford (1986:7) The most essential and fundamental point in Writing Culture is the questioning of ethnographic authenticity. In the 1920s, ethnography was defined and established not only as a genre of cultural description depending on intensive participant observation (Clifford 1983), but also a main research method internalised as a academic criterion in the field of anthropology (Gao 2006). This new style of ethnography-scientific ethnography, built by Malinowski, investigated the totality of culture with a holistic view and documented different layers of ethnographic reality(Kuper 1996). About 50 years later, the theorizing of ethnographic realism sprung up. In 1977, Paul Rabinow, who is a contributor of Writing Culture, published his book Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco. His provocative descriptions of the fieldwork itself and his own feelings in the field reveal that fieldwork is a process of intersubjective construction of liminal modes of communication (1977:155) which constantly involve s valuation, and the ethnographer is not a objective observer but a real person with self-consciousness and certain cultural background who makes and remakes facts. Unlike the revelations of Malinowskis fieldwork dairy and the Mead-Freeman controversy, anthropologists started to look at themselves consciously and pondered-what is the ethnographic truth. This issue has been argued throughout the book. Take for example Vincent Crapanzanos Hermess Dilemma: The Masking of Subversion in Ethnographic Description (1986); he analyses three ethnographic texts by George Catlin, Wolfgang von Goethe and Clifford Geertz to probe how does the ethnographer make his/her work convincing. The three authors use distinctive figures, namely hypotyposis, external theatrical narrativity and interpretive virtuosity, to convince the readers of the descriptions in their texts. He argues that, as a matter of fact, their rhetoric tools make the described events devoiced from the original settings, and finally, it is the ethnographers authority which covers the subversion up. However, the ethnographers authority-his/her presence, perceptual ability, disinterested perspective, objectivity and sincerity (1986:53), is questionable. Does being there mean witnessing everything? Is the perceptual ability trained in a certain culture adequate and reliable? Is disinter ested perspective or objectivity even possible? If not, how can one reach the whole truth by selected fragmentary information? The underlying institutional system and power relations work through all these issues and enmesh in the anthropological knowledge, not to mention the cultural filtering, the information is not completed at the source. Crapanzanos essay reminds us that the ethnographer, like Hermes who decodes and interprets messages, promised to tell no lies but did not promise to tell the whole truth (1986:76). From this perspective, ethnographic truth no longer pursues the true view of the whole world, as Clifford and Rabinow point out in the book, ethnographic truths are partial, committed and incomplete (Clifford 1986:7) and in bondage to cultural settings. 2. Literary devices All constructed truths are made possible by powerful lies of exclusion and rhetoric. As I have mentioned before, Writing Culture is related to the literary turn of anthropology with the foundation of seeing ethnographies as texts. It is easy to point out that another major theme of the book is the literary devices employed in ethnographies, and in which the rhetoric issue has been mostly discussed. For instance, Renato Rosaldos From the Door of His Tent: The Fieldworker and the Inquisitor (1986), by comparing The Nure written by Evens Pritchard with Montaillou written by French social historian Ladurie, demonstrates how ethnographic rhetoric could assist in building authority and objectivity. Needless to repeat, The Nure is a ethnographic masterpiece, and for Montaillou, it is famous for providing an ethnographic analysis of a French community in fourteenth century by using inquisition record. Rosaldo states that, in the first place, in the introductory section, by frankly acknowledging the inequality between the inquisitor / his subjects, the fieldworker/ the Nuer, the authors both indicate the calm presence of mind(1986:89); then, they style themselves as honest men through complaining about the difficulties in gaining information in uneasy tensions between investigators and informants. After that, they claim their information is gradually collected in particles in order to construct the reliability; meanwhile, distanced normalizing mode of discourse, rhetorical absences[2], correspondences[3], etc. are used to enhance the sense of objectivity. In sum, the rhetorical work in introductory parts of the two books by means of separating the context of colonial domination from the production of ethnographic knowledge (1986:93)establish the authors innocence and the ethnographic authority as well. Furthermore, in both authors, the pastoral mode is invoked. The literary mode of pastoral is, firstly a symbol of the spiritual liberty, secondly a mobile position of speaking, and thirdly a label of courtesy and respect. Rosaldos essay interestingly illustrates that, although the power and knowledge relations have not been completely kicked off, to a great extent, they are concealed by the rhetoric tools. Ethnographic rhetoric has a strong impact on the understandings of the ethnographic texts (Scholte 1987). 3. Writing of Self Continued from the preceding paragraph, the mobility in ethnographers positions is demonstrated cumulatively in other chapters of Writing Culture as well. Fieldwork in Common Places by Mary Louis Pratt (1986) provides an illustration. Her essay focuses on the significant history of the relationship between personal narrative and impersonal description (1986:27) in ethnographies and travel writings. Pratt starts with a controversy that anthropology graduate Florinda Donners work Shabobo: A True Adventure in the Remote and Magical Heart of the South American Jungle is facing accusations of plagiarism, because there are some events in her book which are the same as others. Here, Pratt asks a very inspiring question: as ethnography demands accurate descriptions, for describing the same events at the same place, how could Donners work not resemble others? Pratt argues that the authority of ethnography, in some sense, is based on the unique and original personal experience in the field not the factual accuracy (1986:29) of a certain ethnography. From this perspective, personal narratives cannot be eliminated from ethnography, and it also explains why the subgenre of formal ethnography, such as Malinowskis diaries, has not been killed by science (1986:31), but turned into a prolonged tradition of anthropology. Even in formal ethnographies, personal narrative is an integral part. It marks the relationship among the fieldworker, indigenous people, and the audience. It also serves as a regulator, reconciling the inconsistency between the subjective engagement in fieldwork, and the detachment; the self-effacement in formal ethnographic writing. Moreover, her analysis shows that, even in the time of so-called scientific ethnography, ethnographers were writing from multiple, constantly shifting positions, and self is never a scientist-observer (1986:39). To consider further from this point, we could identity a difference between classical ethnography and experimental ethnography. For Malinowski, and his students Firth and Evens-Prichard, the writing of self is a strategy serving for building the authority of scientific ethnography; however, for Rabinow and his contemporary anthropologists, the consciously self-realization in ethnographic writing successfully opens up a dimension for reflective thinking. The self, thus, is public, and mediates in different cultures. The appearance of the new kind of self writing is very provocative: epistemologically, in view of the production and explanation of the knowledge,it penetrates into the relationship between knowledge of self and knowledge of the Other and how knowledge is hermeneutically represented(Rapport, and Overing 2000); methodologically, it seeks for the diversity of ethnographic writing, more specifically, the expression of the subjectivity, the utilization of rhetoric, or, I would say, the writing style. 4. A summary of the three themes: one centre and two basic relationships Throughout all three themes-ethnographic truth, rhetoric in ethnography, and the writing of self, there is a central point-the construction of ethnographic authority, which cannot be comprehended without reference to the power relations. The power relations derive from the Foucaultian intertwining of knowledge and power in the academic discipline as well as the fluctuant historical and political affiliation. Here, I will not repeat these issues which I have argued in the first part, rather, I would suggest two relationships existing in the main themes of Writing Culture: a) ethnographers and the natives they studied, and b) anthropologists and their readers. Having inherited the tradition of Geertzs interpretive anthropology, Writing Culture highlights the reconstruction of the ethnographer/informant relations (Wang Gao). Indigenous people and their culture are no longer viewed as silent and uniform objects. Ethnographic knowledge, as suggested by Rabinow (1977), is built on a bilateral understanding in certain cultural contexts. At the same time, more importantly, the book pays close attention to the relationship between anthropologists and the readers. Same as the literary outputs, ethnographies shape the relations with the audiences through texts (Xu 2001). Both the completed texts and reading activities are certainly influenced by the literary processes (Clifford 1986). By scanning how ethnographies communicate with their readers, the reflexive essays[4] portray ethnography as a kind of dialogue, and the conversational readership allows, or I could say, encourages the readers to take part in the investigation of ethnographic writing. In addition, the discussions regarding the ethnographers distinguished positions in describing others and expressing Self, permit the readers to obtain the different perspectives which the ethnographers have themselves. As Spencer indicated (1989), the correspondence to multiple positions provided by a master hand is a feature of a good ethnography. Why is it important to tak e the readership of ethnography into consideration? I think it depends largely on the unique and versatile character of this readership. Marcus and Cushman (1982) present six categories of readerships of ethnography. The categories differ in purpose, positions, and some of them may merge with another (the first and second one in particular) or others: (1) the specialist readership, (2) the general anthropological readership, (3) readerships from the other social sciences (4) the student readership, (5) the action oriented readership,(6)the popular readership(1982:51-52). Ethnography, firstly, as a genre and a method as well, interposes itself between humanities (relating to category 1 and 2) and social sciences (relating to category 3); secondly, serves as a puberty rite for professional anthropologists (relating to category 4); thirdly, emerges into social and political decision-making for certain historical and institutional reasons (relating to category 5); and finally, attracts common readers thanks to its literary feature and exotic nature (relating to category 6). It is obvious that the readerships of ethnography are extremely complicated and should be carefully identified. Both ethnographers and readers must be self-conscious (Rapport 2000). Hence, the ethnographer/reader relation issue raised by Writing Culture writers, from this angle, is stimulating from the 1980s till today. The ethnographer/reader relation, together with the ethnographer/informant relation, is located in the power discourse and knowledge discourse. Once again, the two relationships echo the central idea of Writing Culture-the authority and power. In a word, although the three themes I proposed are not a very complete summary of the book, the one centre and two basic relationships they conveyed, in my opinion, have demonstrated the most insight and innovation of Writing Culture. Writing Culture: the Chinese Experience In the preliminary report of the Writing Culture seminar and papers, Clifford and Marcus state that Writing Culture is lacking the feminist point of view as well as Third World or non-European approach (Clifford and Marcus 1985). For the former omission, I agree with Schotle (1987) that, some feminist perspectives is inconspicuously harbored in Pratts essay. However, for sure, there is not a so-called Third World standpoint in Writing Culture, which I think is a significant irony for its analysis of power play in the post-colonial time. In Third World countries, anthropology is in a very different context. Their people and cultures have for a long time been discovered, observed, described, and represented by Westerners. Non-Western anthropologists and their ethnographic works are the symbols of the reconfiguration within the discipline, and most of them naturally locate their fieldwork sites in their own cultures to study their own people. Generally speaking, anthropology[5] of the Third World witnesses a fruitful period in the postwar era, which is also the golden age of experimental ethnography, and to some extent, it could be taken as anthropology at home which employs the self-reflexive approach mentioned in Writing Culture. I will then, taking China as an example, look at some ethnographic cases conducted by Chinese anthropologists relating to Writing Culture. I assume it a good perspective to explore the influential power of Writing Culture and its echoes. The first case is Huang Shumins ethnography The Spiral Road:Change In A Chinese Village Through The Eyes Of A Communist Party Leader(1998). Depending on his one-year fieldwork (first ten chapters) and a revisit (chapter 1112) in a village in Fujian province, China, Huang provides a picture of the huge political and economic change and development in a Chinese village from the founding of Peoples Republic of China to the 1990s as well as the impact on the personal and pubic life of a peasant, who is the a political leader in the community. The political struggles, the hardship of raising a family, and the peasants life wisdom are vividly described through a first-person narrative life history approach. Although his novel-like ethnography is first published in English, Huang is regarded as one of the best Chinese anthropologists for his proficient writing skills and great success in narrating the complexity of historical events in rural China in a lighter tone. The second case is drawn from Li Chunxias PhD dissertation Television and the Life of Yi People in China (2005)[6]. As a Yi[7] anthropologist, her ethnography explores how television profoundly incorporated into the fabric (2005: 5) of local peoples daily life. In the text, Lis fieldwork notes collected during her three-year fieldwork at her own village give expression to her close emotional ties with native people, and deliver her concerns and worries of the ethnic minorities living circumstances in contemporary China. Meanwhile, as a scholar, she keenly captures the metaphorical meaning of modernization, development and prosperity by television. Her analysis penetrates into the relations of Yi people/Han people, and pre-modern/modern. The reflexivity about the periphery/centre relations is a main steam in contemporary anthropology of China. The third case is Zhuang Kongshaos ethnographic research on a hot topic in Chinese culture and society: the family education (Zhuang and Feng 2006). He describes the communications and conflicts between a mother and her seven years old daughter and the relations among school education, family education and social education. Zhuang is a pioneer in anthropology of China, not only because he introduces a new approach called educational anthropology, most importantly, the final production of Zhuangs fieldwork is an ethnographic film named My Wife, My Daughter. It is actually beyond the scope of Writing Culture, because it is no longer about the writing and the text. I adopt this case here, trying to argue that, Writing Culture highlights the diversity of ethnography, and now, facing the radical form of ethnography, can the arguments in Writing Culture on ethnographic texts fit in ethnographic films? What is the same and the difference between the grammars of ethnographic writing and seei ng? Are pictures more worthy than words in constructing ethnographic authority? Can texts and films be combined in ethnographic enterprise? Why and how? The book it self is an open ended text, and constantly simulates new questions for anthropologists in the post Writing Culture era, and that also explains why Writing Culture, after more than twenty years, is still being quoted and debated all over the world. It is true, as Schotle harshly points out (1987), that lots of questions in this book remains unclear and unsettled. However, I appreciate the original questions it raised and the appeal to dialogue. Rethinking Writing Culture Following the reflexive direction, I have three points to make on rethinking the book. Before that, I present a brief schema of the three-stage ethnographic research as follows. There is nothing new, however, my questions are based on it. First, with the text-orientation, has the importance of writing been stressed over that of doing ethnography in the book? The potential risk in the textualism emphasized in Writing Culture is that fieldwork retires from the leading position, it has provided a context for substituting the empirical research. As we can see from the schema, fieldwork is the centre of ethnographic research in time and space, and it is also the foundation of anthropology. In this experimental moment, we should not only look at the outcome of fieldwork, but also reflect upon the limitations and new characteristics in fieldwork processes in this Writing Culture or post Writing Culture era. Second, going back to the very first stage, I would argue, different backgrounds of Western and non-Western ethnographers shape two distinguished patterns of reflexive thinking. First, the Western pattern could be called coming home, after studying the Other, from outside in, anthropologists return to the Self, their reflexive thinking is about their own tradition in their own cultural institutions. Second, the non-Western pattern could be named as being home, they do not have a return perspective, their reflexive thinking is still deeply in relation to the West. I fear, in reflexive anthropology, which is greatly established by Writing Culture, anthropologists in the Third World would be more marginalized through their resistance in this centre-periphery discourse. My final thought is on rhetoric issue, which is still an incomprehensible question to me. If rhetoric is an integral component of ethnographic writing, as Rosaldo (1986) argued, there are using and abusing of descriptive rhetoric, then, the next obvious question is: what is the boundary between use and abuse of rhetoric? It seems to me that, use, is a kind of abuse in itself, if so, how can one control it? Epilogue In the final part of my essay, I would like to do an experiment. I will write about my reading experience instead of the conclusion of the whole passage. I originally read this book in Chinese in my junior year at college. As a literature student, I found the book interesting and inspiring, and it positively influenced me in the choosing of anthropology for graduate study. Later, I reread the book both in English and Chinese, and accessed some related articles written by Writing Culture writers. Surprisingly, I found several articles written in collaboration with Clifford and Marcus. Other than this landmark book, Marcus, together with Cushman, wrote Ethnographies as Texts (1982), which is a harbinger of Writing Culture; and he, later, with Fischer, produced the companion volume of Writing Culture-Anthropology as Cultural Critique (1986). Behind these collaborations, I can imagine the interactions of sparkling thoughts as well as understandings and communications. They are spirits of academic research, and also the anthropological endeavor. References Archetti, E.P. (ed.) (1994) Exploring the written: anthropology and the multiplicity of writing. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press. Asad, T. (1986) The concept of cultural translation in British social anthropology, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (eds.) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Asad, T. (2002) From the history of colonial anthropology to the anthropology of Western hegemony, in Vincent, J. (ed.) InThe Anthropology of Politics: A Reader in Ethnography, Theory and Critique, Oxford: Blackwell. Barrett, S.R. (1996) Anthropology: a students guide to theory and method. Toronto. Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. Clifford, J. (1983) On ethnographic authority, Representations, 2, pp. 118-146. JSTOR[Online]. Available at:http://www.jstor.org/stable/2928386 (Accessed: 13 March 2010) Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (1985) The making of ethnographic texts: a preliminary report, Current Anthropology, 26(2), pp. 267-271. JSTOR[Online].Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2743141 (Accessed: 13 March 2010) Clifford, J. (1986) Introduction: partial truth, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (eds.) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Clifford, J. and Marcus (1986) Preface, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (eds.) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Crapanzano, V. (1986) Hermess Dilemma: The Masking of Subversion in Ethnographic Description, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (eds.) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Fabian, J. (1990) Presence and representation: the Other and anthropological writing, Critical Inquiry, 16(4), pp. 753-772, SAGE[Online].Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343766 (Accessed: 13 December 2009) Gao, BZ. (2006) The three periods in the development of ethnography-translators preface to Writing Culture, Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), 28(3), pp 58-63. CNKI[Online]. DOI: cnki:ISSN:1002-3887.0.2006-03-012 (Accessed: 10 November 2009) Gao, BZ. et al.(2007) On Writing Culture, Reading, 2007(4), CNKI[Online]. DOI: CNKI:ISSN:0257-0270.0.2007-04-026 (Accessed: 10 November 2009) Geertz, G. (1975) The interpretation of cultures. London: Hutchinson. Geertz, G. (1983) Local knowledge: further essays in interpretive anthropology. New York: Basic Books. Geertz, G. (1988) Worksandlives: the anthropologist as author. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Harrell, S. (2001) The anthropology of reform and the reform of anthropology: anthropological narratives of recovery and progress in China, Annual Review of Anthropology, 30, pp. 139-161. JSTOR[Online]. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3069212 (Accessed: 03 March 2010) Huang, JB. (2004) The contending of Writing Culture-Post-modern discourse in anthropology and the change in the sudies, Thinking, 30 (4), pp. 39-43. CNKI[Online]. Available at: cnki:ISSN:1001-778X.0.2004-04-009 (Accessed: 10 November 2009) Huang, SM. (1998) The Spiral Road: Change in a Chinese Village Through theEyes of a Communist Party Leader. 2nd edn. Boulder: Westview Press. James, A. Hockey, J. and Dawson, A. (eds.) (1997) After writing culture: epistemology and praxis in contemporary anthropolog

Badrs A Balcony over the Fakihani, Pillars of Salt, by Fadia Faqir, and Al-Atrashs A Woman of Five Seasons :: Badr Fakihani Faqir Pillars Five Seasons Essays

Badr's A Balcony over the Fakihani, Pillars of Salt, by Fadia Faqir, and Al-Atrash's A Woman of Five Seasons Struggles for independence from foreign conquerors, civil tyrants, and the hands of the oppressive have long been the backdrop for life in the Arab World. This struggle is compounded for Arab women, who have the added worries of societal and cultural constraints. The 20th century was a notably gory one, particularly in the Middle East. There have been numerous, almost continuous aggressive confrontations in the region since the dawn of the 20th century, beginning with Ibn Saud?s campaign against the Ottoman Empire (Diller 384) and concluding with the suicide bombings of contemporary daily news. Typically, the actors of this violence have been predominantly men, yet such far reaching, and pervading circumstances of violence have inevitably had an impact on the daily lives and consciousness of countless generations of Arab women. This impact has also saturated the minds of many Arab women writers, and the depth of this effect comes across very well in the works of Liyana Badr, Leila Al -Atrash, and Fadia Faqir. The political and historical contexts of each novel are extremely telling. This ever-present aggressive backdrop influences settings and personal storylines of characters in Badr?s A Balcony over the Fakihani, Faqir?s Pillars of Salt, and Al-Atrash?s A Woman of Five Seasons overwhelmingly. Pillars of Salt, which is set in the early 20s in Jordan, has the earliest setting of all three novels and happens to be one of the more violent. In 1920, Transjordan was p! laced under British mandate. The British left in May of 1923, and then Emir Abdullah attempted to appease and unite various Bedouin groups and form a unit of men able to protect the land from invaders (Diller 261). It is with this historical context that we happen upon the story of Maha and her struggle for survival and independence. The novel begins with the storyteller?s muddy mixture of fact and fable. The storyteller recounts his first encounter with the English, and describes the way ?their cars exhaled black smoke into the clear blue sky? (Faqir 3). The storyteller is somewhat removed from the political context because he is ?half-Arab? (Faqir 3), yet it is still evident that there is some ill feeling towards the English. Later on, we are presented with another political opinion of the storyteller. He describes the story of the Balfour Declaration, and portrays it in a very negative manner, calling i! t the result of Lord Balfour?